Results/effects of European imperialism in Africa

This post discusses the results or effects of European imperialism in African Countries and how they finally gained their independence after struggle.

Social and humanitarian results of European imperialism

• Africans adopted European Ways of life. For example, they learned European languages such as English, French and Portuguese. This eroded African culture
• Due to missionary activities, they learned new skills, such as carpentry, bricklaying and tailoring.
• Africans received better medical care and were exposed to European Knowledge about the link between hygiene and good health. For example, they learned how to dig pit latrines.
• Wars that came with imperialism led to deaths.

Political results

• African chiefs lost their power to rule to European colonial administrators.
• In addition, Africa was divided into colonies ruled by different European countries.
• The partitioning of Africa/creation of boundaries between colonies according to the wishes of the European colonisers led to the separation of some tribes. For example, the Chewa were now found in Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Mozambique.

Economic results

•Introduction of money which replaced the barter system.
•Colonialists brought their industry technology to Africa
•Africans were introduced to paying substantial hut taxes.

Africa Reaction to foreign rule in central Africa

African resistance to colonialism varied from area to area, depending on local conditions.

• Primary resistance refers to the early staged when Africans were not yet trying to get rid of the colonial authorities. They mostly protested peacefully against unfair colonial polices.
• Secondary resistance refers to later stages when Africans tried to overthrow colonial rule and become independent. They worked for their rights and towards independence through organisations such as welfare societies, trade unions and political partied. In some cases, they undertook armed struggles for independence.

Primary resistance

• In Central Africa, primary resistance was mainly led by independent churches that broke away from the missionary churches.
• Their African religious leaders believed that the missionaries and colonial governments were guilty of social, political and economic injustices.

In Central Africa, independent churches were set up by religious leaders such as the following:

Willy Makolapa

• Makolapa set up the first Ethiopian Church in Barotseland in 1900 after breaking away from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society.
• His preaching was about equality for all races.
• The colonial government did not approve of the Church because of his teachings.

Elliot kamwana

•Kamwana broke away from the Free Church of Scotland in Nyasaland. He became involved in spreading the Watch Tower movement (an American religious movement which later became known as the Jehovah’s Witnesses.
•Later he created his own independent church, the “Mlondo” or Watchman mission. He criticized the colonial administration, taxation, oppressive laws and the loss of land.
•The colonial government and the missionaries did not approve of his approach. They sent him into exile, first in South Africa and later in Mauritius.

Charles Domingo

• Domingo a former student of Robert laws of the Livingstonia Mission started the Seventh Day Adventists in Malawi.
• He then set up the African Seventh Day Baptist Church in Mozambique.
• Later, he joined the British African Congress founded by Joseph Booth, which supported the interests of Africans against their colonial masters.
• He openly spoke out against the white missionaries and the colonial government. This led to him also being sent into exile.

Mathew Zwimba

• He formed a church in Southern Rhodesia in 1915 that was called church of the White Bird.
• This church combined traditional beliefs with the Christian faith.

John Chilembwe

• He is generally seen as the most important leader of the independent churches in Central Africa. He also led a rebellion,
• Chilembwe, a Yao from Nyasaland, in 1893 became into contact with Joseph Booth, the leader of the Zambezi Industrial Mission in Blantyre. Booth paid for Chilembwe to Study theology in America from 1899 to 1900.
• On his return, Chilembwe founded the providence Industrial Mission in Chirad Zulu on the shire Highlands. By 1911, he had opened a number of schools.
• In 1915, he led a rebellion against the colonial government with the aim: “Strike a blow and die, for our blood will surely mean something at last ”

The main reasons for this Rebellion

Racial discrimination

The colonial government discriminated against Africans and did not allow them to take on responsible positions in government.

Hut tax

Africans had to pay a hut tax, which whites farmers did not have to do. The hut tax forced Africans to become laborers on white farms.

Mistreatment of farm laborers

African laborers on white farms were treated very badly by white supervisors. For example, on the large Bruce Estate, the supervisor, W.J. Livingstone, was known for his cruel treatment of workers. Workers had to work for very long hours for little pay. They also had to pay rent for settling on white farms, while also having to pay hut taxes to the government.

Insufficient Schools

Chilembwe complained bitterly about the small number of schools available to Africans. He blamed the missionaries who preached about equality but who did not practice it.

Involvement of Africans in the First World War (1914-1918)

The immediate cause of the 1915 rebellion was the recruitment of Africans by the British to serve as soldiers and porters when the first world war against the death of so many “white man’s war.” He was the especially bitter that the families of Africans who were killed in the war still had to pay taxes.

Chilembwe and his men took advantage of the absence of British soldiers and police who were on the border with the Germany colony of Tanganyika (now Tanzania) to prevent a possible German attack.

The uprising started on the Bruce Estates where Livingstone and other two other whites were killed.

However, the rebellion was quickly suppressed by the colonial government. Chilembwe was killed on the Mozambique border while trying to escape.

Secondary resistance

• Secondary resistance in Central Africa started through welfare societies (also called Native Associations) and trade Unions.
• The Welfare Societies were formed by mission-educated young Africans.
• They believed that the education they received made them able to take part in the government of their countries.
• At first, their aim was just to inform the government about the complaints of Africans so that the living and working conditions of Africans could be improve.
• However, later these societies were changed into political parties that fought for independence.

Nyasaland (Malawi)

• In 1912, the colonial government in Nyasaland (now Malawi) passed a District Administrative Ordinance to prevent educated Africans from having a say in the colonial government.
• This allowed for districts councils in which only chiefs were allowed as representatives. Chiefs were usually older and did not have a missionary education.
• This system of indirect rule allowed the chief to keep their traditional powers, while at the same time the colonial powers used these rulers to impose colonial rule on the Africans

Creation of first native associations to resist colonial rule

• 1912: North Nyasaland Native Association under the leadership of Levi Mumba with support from Dr Laws
• 1915: Southern Province Native Association, with Gresham Njilima as its Secretary (the son of one of the people killed during the Chilembwe rebellion)
• • 1920 Mombera Native Association.

Note:

The Associations succeeded in bring African people together and letting them rise above ethnic divisions. This helped to prepare the way for national unity in the fight for independence.

2.Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)

• Welfare societies: welfare societies in Northern Rhodesia were linked to the native associations in Nyasaland through missionaries who came to work in Northern Rhodesia.

Main stages in the growing influence of these societies

• 1923: first welfare Association at Mwenzo in Northern Province, led by David Kaunda, Donald Siwale, Hezekiya Kawosa and Peter Sinkala.
• 1930 the Livingstone Native Association was formed under Isaac Nyirenda and Ernest Matako. Other Associations were formed in Lusaka, Choma, Chipata, Mbala Mazabuka and Kasama
• 1964: Federation of Welfare Societies, led by DautiYamba, united all societies so that they could work together more effectively
• 1948 Northern Rhodesia African National Congress (NRANC), led by Godwin Mbikusita Lewanika from the Feration of welfare societies into the first political party.
• 1951: African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula became the new name of the NRANC.

NOTE:

Another form of secondary resistance in Northern Rhodesia was through trade unions e.g. in 1948, the Nothern Rhodesia Mine Workers Union (NRAMWU) was formed led by Lawrence Katilungu.
NRAMWU worked together with the political parties that developed from welfare societies to resist colonial rule
Struggle for Independence in Central Africa

Nyasaland (Malawi)

• Nyasaland was the first of three areas in the CAF to become independent

Factors that led the people of Nyasaland to fight for independence:

• Little Economic Benefit: Nyasaland gained the least from the federation. For example, it received only 6% of development loans. It was mostly seen as a source of labour
• Unequal representation: The people of Nyasaland were unhappy that there was no African representative on the executive council
• Taxation: Africans in Nyasaland resented the loss of land to white settler farmers as well as the direct and indirect taxes that Africans had to pay.

Stages in the struggle for independence

• 1944: Formation of Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) by leaders such as Wellington Chirwa and Charles Matinga.
• 1955: The Young Turks, a group of younger, more radical leaders such as H. Chipembe, ChiumeYaleta, Dunduza Chisiza T.D Banda replaced the more moderate older leaders. Their aim was to achieve self-government and a system of one man, one vote.
• 1957: Expansion of congress, to a mass political party through an active program of recruiting new members.
• March 1959: states of emergency declared by the governor, Sir. Robert Armitage, after a series of violent clashes between congress members and colonial officials. There were also strikes, riots and demonstrations, of which the worst was at Nkanda Bay.

• July 1959: Malawi Congress Party (MCP), a new political party, formed under the leadership of Orton Chirwa. When Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda was released from prison in 1960, he became the new leader of MCP. Banda declared that the MCP would become continue fighting for the total independence in Malawi.
• 1959: Devlin commission set up by the colonial office in London to investigate the causes of the troubles in Nyasaland in 1955. In its report the commission stated the violence resulted from wide spread opposition to the federation and the people’s desire to rule themselves.

• 1960: Monckton commission did further investigations and determinate that there was strong opposition to the federation in Nyasaland as well as Northern Rhodesia.
• April 1960: More self-government and the rights to vote granted to Nyasaland by colonial Secretary Macleod.
• August 1961: Elections under a new constitution were won by a large majority by the Malawi Congress Party.
• January 1963: Responsible government status was granted to Malawi.
• July 1964: independent state of Malawi established with Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda as first president.

Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)

• 1950: Federation Committee started in Ndola by a group of young men, such as Justin Chimba, Simon Kapwepwe, Rueben Kamanga and Nephas Tembo to campaign against federation.
• 1951: Northern Rhodesia African National Congress changed to the African National Congress (ANC), led by Harry Nkumbula. The ANC’s aim was to prevent the formation of the federation. In March 1953, Nkumbula burned the British White Paper on the proposed Federation Constitution and called for two days of national prayer.
• October 1953: Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland created despite African protests.
• 1958: Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) formed by younger members who felt that the ANC was working too closely with the colonial powers. The aim of ZANC was to unite Africans and to fight for independence. However, the ZANC was banned by the colonial government. Its leaders, such as Kenneth Kaunda, Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe and Munukayumbwa Sipalo, were arrested.

• 1959: United National Independence Party (UNIP) was created from other political parties formed when the ZANC was banned. Mainza Chona led the party until Kenneth Kaunda was released from prison in 1960.
• 1960: Self-government granted to Nyasaland led to increased demands from Kaunda for a similar Constitution for Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda wanted a non-violent campaign to continue working towards independence, but the campaign became violent in some cases.
• 1961: Civil disobedience campaign called the Chachacha, this campaign led to the government revising the Constitution, on condition, on condition that the violence stopped.
• 1962: Election held, which were based on the new Constitution. UNIP got 14 seats, ANC 7 seats and the United Federal Party 10 seats. Kaunda and Nkumbula formed a coalition government.
• 1963: Central African Federation ended
• 1964: Self-government granted, followed by another election on the basis of universal adults franchise. UNIP won 55 SEATS, the ANC got 10 seats and the colonial government got 10 seats. UNIP under Kenneth Kaunda got the majority of the seats. Kenneth Kaunda became the first African Prime Minister.
• 24 October 1964: Independent Republic of Zambia created. Kaunda took over the administration from Sir Evelyn Hone, the last British Governor or Northern Rhodesia.

Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

• Zimbabwe only became independent after a long period of armed struggle. This was because the white settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted self-government that did not include Africans.
• However, in the 1960’s, two important African political parties were formed: Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo and Zimbabwe African Nation Union (ZANU), led by Ndabaningi Sitholi and Robert Mugabe.

Main stages in the struggle for independence led by these two parties:

• 1962: Rhodesia Front, led by Winston Field, formed by racist white groups.
• 1963: ZAPU banned by the government led by Field, after passing an emergency law following disturbances in Bulawayo. Nkomo was forced into exile.

• 1963: ZANU formed when leaders such as Sithole and Mugabe broke away from ZAPU because they wanted to start an armed struggle against the government. They decided to again the support of rural African population who could give the guerrilla fighters opposed to the government food and shelter.
• 1964: Ian Smith became the Prime Minister of the Rhodesia Front government. He immediately began fighting for the right of the white government to become independent from Britain.
• 1965: Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which meant that Ian Smith declared Rhodesia an independent republic, even though the British government did not agree. The British Foreign Secretary, Douglas Home, even tried to solve the Rhodesian problem by offering to recognize Smith’s government, provided that Africans were given opportunities to advance towards majority rule

• 1972: Pearce Commission appointed by the British government to find out what Africans thought about Home’s proposed agreement. The commission’s findings were that Africans in Rhodesia were totally opposed to the agreement.
• Meanwhile, the armed struggle by Africans against the Smith government continued. By 1978, the Liberation Struggle Movement had won the war. After negotiations, an independent Constitution was drawn up in preparation for elections.
• April 1980: ZANU won the elections. Robert Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of an independent Zimbabwe

The Central African Federation of 1953 to 1963

• The Central African Federation, also called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
• It was formed on October 1953. Under this system, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia fell under one central government.
• The Headquarter of the federation was in Salisbury (now Harare) in southern Rhodesia.
• However, each of these areas still had its own regional government.
• Many whites in both Southern and Northern Rhodesia were in favour of the amalgamation or joining of the three areas.
• The Passfield memorandum of 1930 stated the principle of the paramountcy of African interests. This meant that the British government was in favour of policies that protected the interests of Africans rather than those of white settlers.
• Africans in Northern Rhodesia had serious concerns about federation, as they believed that it would lead to the dominance of Southern Rhodesia. They were concerned that the racial segregation that was widespread in Southern Rhodesia would spread to Northern Rhodesia.

Reasons for the Central African Federation

Social reasons

•Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the paramountcy of African interests. They hoped that federation with Southern Rhodesia would end this policy.
•Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the policy of the paramountcy of African interests to their area.

Political reasons

•Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the paramountcy of African Interests. They hoped that federation would mean an end to this policy.
•Africans in Southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the pramountcy of African interests to their area.

Economic reasons

•The white in Southern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the income from the copper mines in Northern Rhodesia, while those in Northern Rhodesia, while those in Northern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the southern gold field.
•The conservative government in Britain believed that federation would result in economic stability, with three main products (copper, gold and tea) for export.
•The British government also believed that federation would attract international funding for large-scale projects, such as the building of a hydro-electric scheme and the extension of railways.

Reasons against the Federation:

Social reasons:

• Whites in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have closer ties with apartheid in South Africa. The policy of the paramountcy of African interests therefore met with their opposition.

Political reason

• African in Northern Rhodesia did not trust the idea of partnership. said, “Partnership is a leader for Europeans to climb on us.”
• In Britain, the Labour and Liberal Parties objected to federation imposed on Africans.

Economic reasons

• Both whites and Africans in Northern Rhodesia felt that those in Southern Rhodesia were just interested in their copper mines.
• Whites and Africans in Nyasaland felt that federation would bring little benefit to them, and would simply use them as a source of labour.

Successes and failures of the Federation

Successes

•Federation attracted foreign funding. This resulted in the construction of the Kariba Dam and hydroelectric power station, as well as the extension of the railway line to the Copper.

Failures

• In the Federation, the ideas of partnership were soon forgotten. As Africans had feared, the whites in Southern Rhodesia benefited the most.
• Racialism spread to Northern Rhodesia, where the hatch system and pass laws were introduced
• Politically, Africans made little progress as they were not given representation in the Executive Council.
• Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland lost fertile farmlands to white settlers and were forced to work as labourers on white farms.